Irrigation management links
Below, you'll find links to articles about monitoring the effectiveness of water treatment and your own water use.
Please note that some links require subscription to access content.
Irrigation system design and operation
- Some problems in water recycling
- Recounts the experience of an Australian nursery owner who installed a recycling system and had to solve algae problems encountered along the way. He finds success by treating his pond with aerators and concentrated microbes.
- Leach, S.
- Combined Proceedings International Plant Propagators' Society Volume 55: 128-131
- 2005
- Removing contaminants from recycled water
- Growers who recycle water must employ the appropriate technologies to avoid also recycling steadily higher concentrations of salts, metals, organic solids, and other contaminants that can harm both crops and equipment.
- Kovach, J. (Nexus Greenhouse Systems)
- GPN
- Greenhouse water management practices: Greenhouse practices increase need for water treatment
- Compares two main types of water recycling (continuous recirculation v. batch recirculation), and management of pH, salts, and nutrients.
- Kovach, J.
- Water Quality Products July 2000
- Avoid irrigation system design flaws
- This article lists common irrigation system design flaws that can lead to problems with algae and pathogen contamination.
- Merril, L. and P. Konjoian (Selective Micro Technologies LLC)
- Merrill&KonjoianSept2006(irridesign).pdf
- GMPro September 2006: 66-69
- 2006
- Injection of chemicals into irrigation systems: Rates, volumes, and injection periods
- This article discusses the management aspects of chemigation and how chemigation influences other aspects of irrigation management. It provides calculations and examples for determining concentrations and rates.
- Clark, G.A., D.Z. Haman, and F.S. Zazueta (University of Florida)
- Edis BUL250
- 1998
- Chemical injection methods for irrigation
- Methods of chemical injection can be classified into four major groups: centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps, pressure differential methods, and methods based on the venturi principle. This article discusses each group and their applications.
- Haman, D.Z., A.G. Smajstrla, and F.S. Zazueta (University of Florida)
- Edis CIR864
- 1990
Pathogens, algae and sanitation
- Efficacy of chlorine in controlling five common plant pathogens
- This research article illustrates how the effectiveness of water treatments, more specific chlorine, depends on the pathogen to control and the dose concentration and time.
- Cayanan,D.F., Zhang, P., Liu, W., Dixon, M., and Zheng, Y. (Controlled Environment Systems Research Facility, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph)
- HortScience
- 2009
- Monitoring Mortality of Pythium zoospores in chlorinated water Using oxidation reduction potential
- This research shows data that indicate that adjusting water pH prior to chlorination may result in an more efficient control of Pythium.
- Lang, J.; Rebits, B.; Newman, S.E. and Tisserat, N. (Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University)
- Plant Health Progress
- 2008
- Fluctuations of Phytophthora and Pythium spp. in components of a recycling irrigation system
- Fluctuation of Pythium and Phytophthora varies through out the year. Untreated water showed that Pythium is present all year round; as Phytophthora is absent in the coldest months . Highest peaks of Pythium were observed from March until July. Treated water had half the amount of Pythium species than the untreated water.
- Bush, E. A., Hong, C. X., and Stromberg, E. L. (Department of Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State)
- Plant Disease
- 2003
- A method for using Commercial ELISA tests to detect zoospores of Phytophthora and Pythium species in irrigation
- Description of detection of Phytophthora and Pythium on water samples.
- Ali-Shtayeh, M.S.; MacDonald, J.D.; and Kabashima, J. (Department of Biological Sciences, University of California Cooperative Extension)
- Plant Disease
- 1991
- Surface sanitation: efficacy of disinfestants applied to plant production surfaces
- Comparison of efficacy of several chemicals including bleach, activated peroxygen (ZeroTol), quaternary ammonium chloride (Greenshield), and other products for control of Botrytis cinerea spores on different surfaces, and emphasizes that a high rate is required on porous production surfaces such as wood.
- W. E. Copes (USDA-ARS)
- 2003 SNA Research Meeting Proceedings Vole 48:212-214
- Biology of waterborne pathogens
- Biology of waterborne pathogens from our series on water treatment.
- Wick, R., P.R. Fisher, and P. Harmon (Water Education Alliance for Horticulture)
- GMPro, April 2008:16-18
- Survey of Pythium and Phythophtora spp. in irrigation water used by Colorado commercial greenhouses
- This study tested for the presence of Pythium and Phytophthora spp. in the irrigation water of greenhouses supplied by municipal, well, and surface water sources.
- Pottorff, L.P. and K.L. Panter (Colorado State University)
- HortTechnology Volume 7 Issue 2: 153-155
- 1997
- Plant pathogens in irrigation water: Challenges and opportunities
- Review of literature on plant pathogens, provides information on detecting pathogens in water, and reviews treatment options (including prevention). Abstract available on the journal website, subscription or purchase required to view full article.
- Hong, C.X. and G.W. Moorman (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
- Critical Reviews in Plant Science Volume 24 Issue 3: 189-208
- 2005
- Characterization and control of Pythium pathogens in recycled irrigation water
- This article discusses the efficacy of current Phytophthora chlorination controls for Pythium control.
- Kong, P., P.A. Richardson, and C. Hong (Department of Plant Pathology, Physiology, and Weed Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
- KongetalApril2004(Pythiumreport).pdf
- Research Report F-2004-2, Floriculture Industry Research and Scholarship Trust
- 2004
- Efficacy of chlorine on multiple species of Phytophthora in recycled nursery irrigation water
- Reviews advantages and disadvantages of various water treatment technologies for Phytophthora control, develops guidelines for chlorination using sodium hypochlorite.
- Hong, C.X., P.A. Richardson, P. Kong and E.A. Bush (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
- Plant Disease Volume 87 Issue 10: 1183-1189
- 2003
- Pythium and recycled irrigation water
- This article reports a new technique for identifying Pythium species, and provides guidelines for chlorination to control Pythium in recycled water using sodium hypochlorite.
- Kong, P, P.A. Richardson and C. Hong (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
- GPN Volume 14 Issue 5: 32-35
- 2004
- Greenhouse sanitation: Too important to ignore
- Discusses the need for and benefits of greenhouse sanitation, and reviews some options for treating recycled water. Article begins on page 2 of linked publication.
- Rettke, S.K. (Ornamental IPM Program Associate, Rutgers Cooperative Research & Extension)
- Northeast Greenhouse IPM Notes Volume 14 Issue 7: 2-5
- 2004
- Hygiene in the nursery: Disinfecting production surfaces; cement, gravel, capillary mats and sand beds
- Advice and guidelines for sanitizing porous surfaces in the greenhouse. Tested efficacy of copper ionization, chlorination, and quaternary ammonium compounds against fungi, bacteria, and nematodes on several different surfaces.
- Stovold, G. (Tropical Fruit Research Station, Alstonville, AU)
- The Nursery Papers Volume 2000 Issue 5: 1-4
- 2000
- Dose curves of disinfestants applied to plant production surfaces to control Botrytis cinerea
- Sanitation is a proven component of limiting the spread of pathogens. In this study, lethal dose curves are calculated for six disinfectants (including hydrogen dioxide, quaternary ammonium compounds, and sodium hypochlorite) applied to seven different surfaces contaminated with Botrytis.
- Copes, W.E (USDA Small Fruit Experiment Station)
- Plant Disease Volume 88 Issue 5: 509-515
- 2004
- Algae: Bad for plants, bad for business
- Controlling algae requires an understanding of how algae grows and spreads, and the chemical and non-chemical means that control its associated problems. This article discusses the biology of algae, the problems it can cause, and how you can control it.
- Goldberg, N. (BioSafe Systems)
- GPN Volume 13 Issue 2: 62
- 2003
- Prevention before problems
- Mineral deposits and buildup of organic material (biofilm) lead to pathogen problems for many growers. This article discusses the use of disinfectants to prevent these problems.
- MacMullin, R., and Martin, W. (Pace Chemicals Ltd.)
- GPN Volume 14 Issue 7: 40-41
- 2004
- Hygiene and sanitation of working surfaces in the nursery
- Advice and guidelines for sanitizing smooth work surfaces (e.g. metal bench). Provides guidance on determining which pathogens should be the focus of a sanitation program.
- The Nursery Papers Volume 2000 Issue 3: 1-2
- 2000
- Cleaning and disinfecting the greenhouse
- Overview of the importance of greenhouse sanitation, discussion of techniques and products available.
- Smith, T. (University of Massachusetts)
- University of Massachusetts Extension
- 2006
Environmental issues
- IPM practices reduce pesticide levels in runoff water at a container nursery
- A brief description of the results of an experiment that tested plant health and pesticide levels in runoff under traditional and integrated pest management regimes.
- Briggs, J., T. Whitwell, M.B. Riley, and T. Fernandez (Clemson University)
- HortScience Volume 34 Issue 3
- 1999
- Recycling water, nutrients, and waste in the nursery industry
- Irrigation water recycling provides an answer to concerns about our environment and resources. This excerpt from a speech explains how simple and sophisticated filtration systems clean water for re-use.
- Skimina, C.A. (Monrovia Nursery Company)
- Skimina1992(waternutrients&waste).pdf
- HortScience Volume 27 Issue 9: 968
- 1992
Nutritional water quality (pH, EC, alkalinity, salts)
- Water considerations for container production of plants
- Discusses water quality and quantity issues for container production. Provides guidance on measuring water use for irrigation in the greenhouse and nursery, and explains why it is important to monitor water pH and alkalinity.
- Bailey, D., T. Bilderback, and D. Bir (North Carolina State University)
- Horticulture Information Leaflet 557
- 1999
- Alkalinity control for irrigation water used in nurseries and greenhouses
- High pH water and high alkalinity water can be limiting factors in container production of greenhouse and nursery crops. This article discusses both.
- Bailey, D. and T. Bilderback (North Carolina State University)
- Horticulture Information Leaflet 558
- 1998
- Foliar deposits and stains from irrigation water
- Explains that the precipitation of magnesium, calcium, and iron from irrigation water can reduce plant quality, and suggests strategies to mitigate this problem.
- Haman, D.Z. and T.H. Yeager (University of Florida)
- Edis
- Greenhouse water management practices: Greenhouse practices increase need for water treatment
- Compares two main types of water recycling (continuous recirculation v. batch recirculation), and management of pH, salts, and nutrients.
- Kovach, J.
- Water Quality Products July 2000
Monitoring and sampling
- Monitoring for waterborne pathogens
- In this video presentation, Paul Fisher (University of Florida) provides tips on deciding where to sample your water, where and how to send your samples, and how to interpret results. Link opens in new window. System requirements include broadband connectivity, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Windows Media Player.
- Fisher, P., and C. Smith. (University of Florida, University of New Hampshire)
- 2008
- Pathogen monitoring study
- In this video, Paul Fisher presents results from water quality testing in commercial greenhouses. Link opens in new window. System requirements include broadband connectivity, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Windows Media Player.
- Fisher, P., and C. Smith. (University of Florida, University of New Hampshire)
- 2008
- The transport of waterborne solutes and bacteriophage in soil subirrigated with a wastewater blend
- This study describes the use of recycled municipal wastewater for subsurface drip irrigation, and tests for enteric virus contamination of soils and crops.
- Assadian, N.W., G.D. Di Giovanni, J. Enciso, J. Iglesias, and W. Lindemann (Texas A&M Research and Extension Center)
- Agriculture, Ecosystems and Envrionment Volume 111: 279-291
- 2005
- Water quality: Is it an issue?
- Results of a grower survey on water treatment- level of concern, testing conducted, and types of treatments used.
- Burns, C. (GPN)
- Greenhouse Product News October 2004: 74-75
- 2004
- Irrigation and household water test and interpretation
- Describes a protocol for sampling water for pH, electrical conductivity, salt, Fe & Mn, suspended solids, and hardness testing, and a generalized interpretation of results.
- Mylavarapu, R. (University of Florida)
- Edis
- 2004
- Effective control of chlorination and dechlorination at wastewater treatment plants using redox potential
- Measurements of total residual chlorine are not an accurate depiction of the disinfecting ability of treated water. This article proposes ORP as a better determinant of the effectiveness of chlorinated water, and discusses the sensitivity of chlorine to pH. Reprinted with permission from Water Environment Research, Copyright 2007 Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Virginia. The paper may be downloaded for personal use only. Any other use requires prior permission of the Water Environment Federation.
- Kim, Y.H. and R. Hensley
- Kim&Hensley2007WaterEnvResearch(effective_control_chlorination).pdf
- Water Environment Research Volume 69 Issue 5: 1008-1014
- 1997
- Collecting water samples at container nurseries
- Outlines protocol for collecting water samples from water source to monitor pH, electrical conductivity, and nutrient composition.
- Yeager, T. (University of Florida)
- Edis
- Sources of monitoring equipment
- Some example sources for water monitoring equipment (for example, ORP, pH, Petrifilm) and analytical procedures (for example, plating of pathogenic fungi).
- P.R. Fisher and D. Meador (University of Florida IFAS)
- Water Education Alliance for Horticulture workshop handout
Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP)
- Monitoring mortality of Pythium zoospores in chlorinated water using oxidation reduction potential
- This research shows data that indicate that adjusting water pH prior to chlorination may result in an more efficient disease control treatment. Adjusting the water to pH to 6.0 prior to chlorination resulted in higher ORP values; therefore, less chlorine is required for complete disinfestation.
- Lang, J., Rebits, B., Newman, S.E. and Tisserat, N. (Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University)
- Plant Health Progress
- 2008
- The reason why chlorine-treated water and peroxyacetic acid treated water register different oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) responses
- This article explains how ORP is determined, and why operators must draw on previous experience or historical measurements when using ORP to evaluate the effectiveness of an oxidizing agent.
- Howarth, J. (Enviro Tech Chemical Services)
- HowarthEnvTech2007(ReasonWhy).pdf
- Enviro Tech fact sheet 10/30/2007
- 2007
- Residual, ORP, and dual oxidation control solutions for water and wastewater disinfection
- This article explains in depth why measuring either only ORP or residual chlorine alone can be insufficient for managing chlorination levels. The first page of the article is posted here; to find the complete article, please conduct a web search of the Journal title. Reprinted from Journal AWWA, by permission. Copyright 2006, American Water Works Association. For additional information on water-related issues, contact AWWA at www.awwa.org or 800-926-7337.
- Thomas, E.J. (Siemens Water Technology)
- Thomas2006AWWA(residual_ORP_dualoxidation).pdf
- American Water Works Association Journal Volume 98 Issue 10: 46-52
- 2006
- Oxidation reduction potential as a measure of disinfection effectiveness for chlorination of wastewater
- Presents measuring ORP as a less time and cost intensive alternative to measuring residual chlorine in a wastewater treatment context. The first page of the article is posted here; to find the complete article, please conduct a web search of the Journal title.
- Bergendahl, J.A., and L. Stevens (Worcester Polytechnic Institute)
- Environmental Progress Volume 24 Issue 2: 214-222
- 2005
- Fundamentals of ORP measurement
- An easy-to-read overview of what ORP is, how it is calculated, and how it relates to concentration of a disinfestant.
- Emerson Process Management (Roseman Analytical, Inc.)
- Application Data Sheet (ADS 43-014/rev.A)
- 2004
- ORP control in pools and spas
- Explains the use of ORP kits to measure activity of disinfestant in the context of pool maintenance.
- Steininger, J. (Santa Barbara Control Systems)
- 1998
- Effective control of chlorination and dechlorination at wastewater treatment plants using redox potential
- Measurements of total residual chlorine are not an accurate depiction of the disinfecting ability of treated water. This article proposes ORP as a better determinant of the effectiveness of chlorinated water, and discusses the sensitivity of chlorine to pH. Reprinted with permission from Water Environment Research, Copyright 2007 Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Virginia. The paper may be downloaded for personal use only. Any other use requires prior permission of the Water Environment Federation.
- Kim, Y.H. and R. Hensley
- Kim&Hensley2007WaterEnvResearch(effective_control_chlorination).pdf
- Water Environment Research Volume 69 Issue 5: 1008-1014
- 1997
- ORP sensor response in chlorinated water
- A report of tests to determine the reliability of ORP monitors written for all audiences. The longevity of the ORP sensors, the effects of immersion time, and the effects of salt concentration on ORP readings in chlorinated water are all discussed.
- Steininger, J.M. and C. Pareja (Santa Barbara Control Systems)
- NSPI Symposium Series
- 1996
- Using Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP) for Water Disinfection Monitoring, Control and Documentation
- Describes the use of ORP monitors in post harvest applications, and the relationship of mV values to pH estimates of parts per million of active disinfectant. Discusses ORP for monitoring chlorine compounds and ozone in particular.
- Suslow, T.V. (University of California, Davis)
- Fact sheet Suslow 10-00
- Wash water sanitation by ORP: Fruits and vegetables
- Describes use of ORP monitor to determine efficacy of oxidizing agent in water treatment system.
- Pulse Instruments
- Sodium and calcium hypochlorite principles
- Chemistry, pH effects, ORP, and mode of action of sodium and calcium hypochlorite from our series on water treatment for pathogens and algae.
- Fisher, P.R., W.R. Argo, C. Hong, J. Huang, A. Looper, D. Wiegers, R. Vetanovetz, and Y. Zheng (Water Education Alliance for Horticulture)
- GMPro, June 2008:21-25
